Psychologists have grouped together to form various schools of psychology with distinct approaches to the study of behavior. Structuralists attempted to identify elements of conciousness and how these elements form the structure of mind. Functionalists studied the functions of mental processes in adapting the individual to the environment. They broadened the scope of psychology and extended its influence to such fields as education and industry.
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Freud’s psychoanalytic theory examined psychologycal problems that were presumed to be caused by unconscious conflicts. The Gestalt school studied organizing principles of perceptual processes and paved the way for an ecletic approach.
Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned. Humanistic psychology focuses on inner meanings and asumes our nature is positive and growth-seeking. Cognitive psychology examines reasoning and mental processes.
Psychobiology attempts to explain behavior as complex chemical and biological events within the brain.
6/26/08
Animals in Research: Is It Ethical?
There has been some research in which electric shock or some other type of unpleasant or aversive treatment has been administered to animals. In recent years, this type of research has been brought to the public’s attention by animal rights groups opposed to such research and to improper care of laboratory animals. Such research is extremely rare, however, and psychologist argue that it is conducted only when there is no alternative way to study the behavior when applications of the research justify the nature of the experimetn. Only about 7 to 8 percent of all psychological research is done animals, and 90 percent of that is done with rats and mice. In most institutions where animal research is conducted, animal care committes are established to ensure proper treatment of research animals, to review projects, and to set guidelines that are in accordance with the APA standards for the care and treatment of research animals.
Most studies involving animals consist of naturalistic observation or learning experiments using rewards rather than punishment. Animals are used instead of humans because time requirements (as in sudies of aging), risk, or othjer conditions make it impossible to use humans. Animal research has benefited humans in many ways. Research on learning in rats and pigeons has led to the development of programmed learning materials. Research in taching sign language to chimps and gorillas has led to a better understanding of the structure of human language.
Research involving the effects of drugs on unborn animals has demonstrated the risks of maternal alcohol. More natural environments have been created for zoo animals, successful breeding techniques have beeen developed for endangered species, and more effective training techniques have been developed for pets and wild animals in captivity. Despite the benefits of animal research, the use of animals in psychological research will continue to be an ethical problem for psychologist in the future.
Most studies involving animals consist of naturalistic observation or learning experiments using rewards rather than punishment. Animals are used instead of humans because time requirements (as in sudies of aging), risk, or othjer conditions make it impossible to use humans. Animal research has benefited humans in many ways. Research on learning in rats and pigeons has led to the development of programmed learning materials. Research in taching sign language to chimps and gorillas has led to a better understanding of the structure of human language.
Research involving the effects of drugs on unborn animals has demonstrated the risks of maternal alcohol. More natural environments have been created for zoo animals, successful breeding techniques have beeen developed for endangered species, and more effective training techniques have been developed for pets and wild animals in captivity. Despite the benefits of animal research, the use of animals in psychological research will continue to be an ethical problem for psychologist in the future.
Ethics in Psychology
Psychologists are expected to maintain high ethical standard in their relations with human and animal research participants and in therapeutic relationships with clients. The American Psychological Association (APA) has published specific guidelines detailing these ethical standards.
The APA, the largest professional organization of psychologists, recognizes the importance maintaining high ethical standards in research, therapy, and all other areas of professional psychology. The preamble to their publication Ethical Principles of Psychologist (1990) admonishes psychologyst to maintain their competence, to retain objectivity in applying their skills, and to preserce the dignity and best interests of their clients, colleagues, students, research participants, and society.
Deception research is conducted. An investigator should obtain the participant’s “informed consent” before initiating an experiment. The researcher should fully inform the participant as to the nature of the study and come to an agreement with the participant as to the responsibilities of each. If the participant knew the true purpose behind some studies, they would almost certainly not respond normally. Therefore, APA acknowledges the need for some deception research. However, researchers explain the reasons for conducting this research are expected to follow strict guidelines, which include debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. When debriefing participants, researchers explain the reasons for conducting the research and clear up any misconceptions or concerns on the part of the participants. It is expected that participants will be debriefed at the end of all experiments.
The APA, the largest professional organization of psychologists, recognizes the importance maintaining high ethical standards in research, therapy, and all other areas of professional psychology. The preamble to their publication Ethical Principles of Psychologist (1990) admonishes psychologyst to maintain their competence, to retain objectivity in applying their skills, and to preserce the dignity and best interests of their clients, colleagues, students, research participants, and society.
Deception research is conducted. An investigator should obtain the participant’s “informed consent” before initiating an experiment. The researcher should fully inform the participant as to the nature of the study and come to an agreement with the participant as to the responsibilities of each. If the participant knew the true purpose behind some studies, they would almost certainly not respond normally. Therefore, APA acknowledges the need for some deception research. However, researchers explain the reasons for conducting this research are expected to follow strict guidelines, which include debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. When debriefing participants, researchers explain the reasons for conducting the research and clear up any misconceptions or concerns on the part of the participants. It is expected that participants will be debriefed at the end of all experiments.
Psychological Research
Research methodology includes experimental techniques designed to investigate cause-and-effect relationship and nonexperimental techniques that provide descriptions of behavior.
An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation for behavior. Independent variables are the factors the experimenters manipulates and dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. Experimental control includes assigning participants to groups and holding extraneous variables constant.
Nonexperimental research techniques are used to obtain descriptions of behavior. Naturalistic observation is used to study behavior in its natural habitat. Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample participants. Individual case studies are in-depth studies of a participant.
Experiments enable us to determinate causes for behaviors, whereas correlational relationships only enable us to predict behaviors.
Psychologyst are use statistics to judge whether research findings are significant or due to chance.
An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation for behavior. Independent variables are the factors the experimenters manipulates and dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. Experimental control includes assigning participants to groups and holding extraneous variables constant.
Nonexperimental research techniques are used to obtain descriptions of behavior. Naturalistic observation is used to study behavior in its natural habitat. Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample participants. Individual case studies are in-depth studies of a participant.
Experiments enable us to determinate causes for behaviors, whereas correlational relationships only enable us to predict behaviors.
Psychologyst are use statistics to judge whether research findings are significant or due to chance.
Understanding Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior. Psychologist use strict scientific research methods to investigate overt, or observable, behavoirs and covert behaviors such as thoughts and feelings. The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior.
Psychologist perform research and can specialize in several areas including clinical, sounseling, educational, school, physiological, developmental, social, or industrial and organizational psychology. Basic research involves the study of theoretical issues; apllied research involves solving specific problems.
Cultural psychology is the study of the influences of culture on behavior with the purpose of distinguishing between culturally specific behavior and universal behavior. People tend to be ethnocentric, believing their own culture’s practices are normal and practices of other cultures, if different, are deficient or abnormal. To succeed in today’s world, we need to learn not only about how people from other culturees are different but also how much they are the same.
Psychological findings can be applied to improve our personal lives. The study of psychology leads to an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudoscientific methods.
Psychologist perform research and can specialize in several areas including clinical, sounseling, educational, school, physiological, developmental, social, or industrial and organizational psychology. Basic research involves the study of theoretical issues; apllied research involves solving specific problems.
Cultural psychology is the study of the influences of culture on behavior with the purpose of distinguishing between culturally specific behavior and universal behavior. People tend to be ethnocentric, believing their own culture’s practices are normal and practices of other cultures, if different, are deficient or abnormal. To succeed in today’s world, we need to learn not only about how people from other culturees are different but also how much they are the same.
Psychological findings can be applied to improve our personal lives. The study of psychology leads to an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudoscientific methods.
6/12/08
Symptomps of bulimia
The symptomps of bulimia are difficulty swallowing and retaining food, swollen and/or infected salivary glands, damage to esophagus, sometimes causing pain and/or internal bleeding, bursting blood, vessels in the eyes, excessive tooth decay, loss of tooth enamel (an irrevesible condition), weakness, headaches, dizzines, inconspicious binge-eating frequent significant weight fluctuations due to alternating binges and fasts, fear of inability to stop eting voluntarily.
Symptomps of anorexia nervosa
The symptomps of anorexia nervosa are 20-25 percent body weight loss, hiperactivity, distorted body image, amenorrhea (in females) – loss of menstruation, excessive constipation, depression, loss of hair (head), growth of fine body hair (called lanugo), extreme sensitivity to cold temperatures, low pulse rate.
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