Psychologists have grouped together to form various schools of psychology with distinct approaches to the study of behavior. Structuralists attempted to identify elements of conciousness and how these elements form the structure of mind. Functionalists studied the functions of mental processes in adapting the individual to the environment. They broadened the scope of psychology and extended its influence to such fields as education and industry.
]
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory examined psychologycal problems that were presumed to be caused by unconscious conflicts. The Gestalt school studied organizing principles of perceptual processes and paved the way for an ecletic approach.
Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned. Humanistic psychology focuses on inner meanings and asumes our nature is positive and growth-seeking. Cognitive psychology examines reasoning and mental processes.
Psychobiology attempts to explain behavior as complex chemical and biological events within the brain.
6/26/08
Animals in Research: Is It Ethical?
There has been some research in which electric shock or some other type of unpleasant or aversive treatment has been administered to animals. In recent years, this type of research has been brought to the public’s attention by animal rights groups opposed to such research and to improper care of laboratory animals. Such research is extremely rare, however, and psychologist argue that it is conducted only when there is no alternative way to study the behavior when applications of the research justify the nature of the experimetn. Only about 7 to 8 percent of all psychological research is done animals, and 90 percent of that is done with rats and mice. In most institutions where animal research is conducted, animal care committes are established to ensure proper treatment of research animals, to review projects, and to set guidelines that are in accordance with the APA standards for the care and treatment of research animals.
Most studies involving animals consist of naturalistic observation or learning experiments using rewards rather than punishment. Animals are used instead of humans because time requirements (as in sudies of aging), risk, or othjer conditions make it impossible to use humans. Animal research has benefited humans in many ways. Research on learning in rats and pigeons has led to the development of programmed learning materials. Research in taching sign language to chimps and gorillas has led to a better understanding of the structure of human language.
Research involving the effects of drugs on unborn animals has demonstrated the risks of maternal alcohol. More natural environments have been created for zoo animals, successful breeding techniques have beeen developed for endangered species, and more effective training techniques have been developed for pets and wild animals in captivity. Despite the benefits of animal research, the use of animals in psychological research will continue to be an ethical problem for psychologist in the future.
Most studies involving animals consist of naturalistic observation or learning experiments using rewards rather than punishment. Animals are used instead of humans because time requirements (as in sudies of aging), risk, or othjer conditions make it impossible to use humans. Animal research has benefited humans in many ways. Research on learning in rats and pigeons has led to the development of programmed learning materials. Research in taching sign language to chimps and gorillas has led to a better understanding of the structure of human language.
Research involving the effects of drugs on unborn animals has demonstrated the risks of maternal alcohol. More natural environments have been created for zoo animals, successful breeding techniques have beeen developed for endangered species, and more effective training techniques have been developed for pets and wild animals in captivity. Despite the benefits of animal research, the use of animals in psychological research will continue to be an ethical problem for psychologist in the future.
Ethics in Psychology
Psychologists are expected to maintain high ethical standard in their relations with human and animal research participants and in therapeutic relationships with clients. The American Psychological Association (APA) has published specific guidelines detailing these ethical standards.
The APA, the largest professional organization of psychologists, recognizes the importance maintaining high ethical standards in research, therapy, and all other areas of professional psychology. The preamble to their publication Ethical Principles of Psychologist (1990) admonishes psychologyst to maintain their competence, to retain objectivity in applying their skills, and to preserce the dignity and best interests of their clients, colleagues, students, research participants, and society.
Deception research is conducted. An investigator should obtain the participant’s “informed consent” before initiating an experiment. The researcher should fully inform the participant as to the nature of the study and come to an agreement with the participant as to the responsibilities of each. If the participant knew the true purpose behind some studies, they would almost certainly not respond normally. Therefore, APA acknowledges the need for some deception research. However, researchers explain the reasons for conducting this research are expected to follow strict guidelines, which include debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. When debriefing participants, researchers explain the reasons for conducting the research and clear up any misconceptions or concerns on the part of the participants. It is expected that participants will be debriefed at the end of all experiments.
The APA, the largest professional organization of psychologists, recognizes the importance maintaining high ethical standards in research, therapy, and all other areas of professional psychology. The preamble to their publication Ethical Principles of Psychologist (1990) admonishes psychologyst to maintain their competence, to retain objectivity in applying their skills, and to preserce the dignity and best interests of their clients, colleagues, students, research participants, and society.
Deception research is conducted. An investigator should obtain the participant’s “informed consent” before initiating an experiment. The researcher should fully inform the participant as to the nature of the study and come to an agreement with the participant as to the responsibilities of each. If the participant knew the true purpose behind some studies, they would almost certainly not respond normally. Therefore, APA acknowledges the need for some deception research. However, researchers explain the reasons for conducting this research are expected to follow strict guidelines, which include debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. When debriefing participants, researchers explain the reasons for conducting the research and clear up any misconceptions or concerns on the part of the participants. It is expected that participants will be debriefed at the end of all experiments.
Psychological Research
Research methodology includes experimental techniques designed to investigate cause-and-effect relationship and nonexperimental techniques that provide descriptions of behavior.
An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation for behavior. Independent variables are the factors the experimenters manipulates and dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. Experimental control includes assigning participants to groups and holding extraneous variables constant.
Nonexperimental research techniques are used to obtain descriptions of behavior. Naturalistic observation is used to study behavior in its natural habitat. Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample participants. Individual case studies are in-depth studies of a participant.
Experiments enable us to determinate causes for behaviors, whereas correlational relationships only enable us to predict behaviors.
Psychologyst are use statistics to judge whether research findings are significant or due to chance.
An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation for behavior. Independent variables are the factors the experimenters manipulates and dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. Experimental control includes assigning participants to groups and holding extraneous variables constant.
Nonexperimental research techniques are used to obtain descriptions of behavior. Naturalistic observation is used to study behavior in its natural habitat. Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample participants. Individual case studies are in-depth studies of a participant.
Experiments enable us to determinate causes for behaviors, whereas correlational relationships only enable us to predict behaviors.
Psychologyst are use statistics to judge whether research findings are significant or due to chance.
Understanding Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior. Psychologist use strict scientific research methods to investigate overt, or observable, behavoirs and covert behaviors such as thoughts and feelings. The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and change behavior.
Psychologist perform research and can specialize in several areas including clinical, sounseling, educational, school, physiological, developmental, social, or industrial and organizational psychology. Basic research involves the study of theoretical issues; apllied research involves solving specific problems.
Cultural psychology is the study of the influences of culture on behavior with the purpose of distinguishing between culturally specific behavior and universal behavior. People tend to be ethnocentric, believing their own culture’s practices are normal and practices of other cultures, if different, are deficient or abnormal. To succeed in today’s world, we need to learn not only about how people from other culturees are different but also how much they are the same.
Psychological findings can be applied to improve our personal lives. The study of psychology leads to an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudoscientific methods.
Psychologist perform research and can specialize in several areas including clinical, sounseling, educational, school, physiological, developmental, social, or industrial and organizational psychology. Basic research involves the study of theoretical issues; apllied research involves solving specific problems.
Cultural psychology is the study of the influences of culture on behavior with the purpose of distinguishing between culturally specific behavior and universal behavior. People tend to be ethnocentric, believing their own culture’s practices are normal and practices of other cultures, if different, are deficient or abnormal. To succeed in today’s world, we need to learn not only about how people from other culturees are different but also how much they are the same.
Psychological findings can be applied to improve our personal lives. The study of psychology leads to an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudoscientific methods.
6/12/08
Symptomps of bulimia
The symptomps of bulimia are difficulty swallowing and retaining food, swollen and/or infected salivary glands, damage to esophagus, sometimes causing pain and/or internal bleeding, bursting blood, vessels in the eyes, excessive tooth decay, loss of tooth enamel (an irrevesible condition), weakness, headaches, dizzines, inconspicious binge-eating frequent significant weight fluctuations due to alternating binges and fasts, fear of inability to stop eting voluntarily.
Symptomps of anorexia nervosa
The symptomps of anorexia nervosa are 20-25 percent body weight loss, hiperactivity, distorted body image, amenorrhea (in females) – loss of menstruation, excessive constipation, depression, loss of hair (head), growth of fine body hair (called lanugo), extreme sensitivity to cold temperatures, low pulse rate.
Causes of anorexia nervosa or bulimia
There are almost as many causes as there are victims. Some theories focus on physical causes such as hypothalamic disorders, lowered levels of various neurotransmitters, and generic or hormonal disorders. Other theories emphasize psychological or social factors, such as perfectionism, perceived loss of control, depression, dysfunctional families, distorted body image, and societal pressures for thinnes.
Even though there is no definitive theory to explain anorexia nervosa and bulimia, it is important to recognize the symptomps and seek theraphy if the symptomps apply to you. There is no question that both disorders are potentially life-threatening and require treatment.
Even though there is no definitive theory to explain anorexia nervosa and bulimia, it is important to recognize the symptomps and seek theraphy if the symptomps apply to you. There is no question that both disorders are potentially life-threatening and require treatment.
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
Two serious eating disorders that demonstrate the potential casualties of dieting are anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder, seen mostly in adolescent and young adult females, in which a severe loss of weight results from an obsessive fear of obesity and self imposed starvation.
Bulimia is an eating disorder in which enormous quantities of food are consumed (binges), followed by purging by taking laxatives or vomiting.
Anorexia nervosa seen mostly in adolescent and young adult females, in which a severe loss of weight results from an obsessive fear of obesity and self-imposed starvation. Anorexia nervosa is a perplexing disorder characterized by a loss of 20 to 25 percent of the original body weight.
The anorexic’s overwhelming fear of becoming obese does not diminish even with radical and obvious weight loss. Body image is so distorted that even a skeletal body is perceived as fat. The disorder primarily affects white, middle- and upper-class female adolescents and young adults. But there is growing evidence that the problem may begin as early as seven or eight years of age and that males may also be affected. Many anorexics not only refuse to eat, but they also take up extreme exercise regimens – hours of cycling or running, or constant walking.
The anorexic’s extreme weight loss leads to bone fractures and osteoporosis. Menstruation often ceases, and brain CAT scans of anorexic patients show enlarged ventricles (cavities) and widened grooves. Such signs generally indicate loss of brain tissue. Approximately 5 percent ultimately die of the disorder.
Occasionally the anorexic succumbs to the desire to eat and gorges on food, followed by vomiting or taking laxatives. This type of binging and purging is also characteristic of bulimia.
Bulimia is much more common than anorexia nervosa. Bulimics are not just impulsive eaters; they also show impulsivity in other aeas, sometimes by petty shoplifting or alcohol abuse. Like anorexia, bulimia is very harmful and can even be life-threatening. Bulimia causes eroded tooth enamel and tooth loss, severe damage to the throat and stomach, and serious digestive disorders. Because bulimics are aware of their abnormal eating habits and are often desperate to get help, they are usually more responsive to therapy than anorexics.
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder, seen mostly in adolescent and young adult females, in which a severe loss of weight results from an obsessive fear of obesity and self imposed starvation.
Bulimia is an eating disorder in which enormous quantities of food are consumed (binges), followed by purging by taking laxatives or vomiting.
Anorexia nervosa seen mostly in adolescent and young adult females, in which a severe loss of weight results from an obsessive fear of obesity and self-imposed starvation. Anorexia nervosa is a perplexing disorder characterized by a loss of 20 to 25 percent of the original body weight.
The anorexic’s overwhelming fear of becoming obese does not diminish even with radical and obvious weight loss. Body image is so distorted that even a skeletal body is perceived as fat. The disorder primarily affects white, middle- and upper-class female adolescents and young adults. But there is growing evidence that the problem may begin as early as seven or eight years of age and that males may also be affected. Many anorexics not only refuse to eat, but they also take up extreme exercise regimens – hours of cycling or running, or constant walking.
The anorexic’s extreme weight loss leads to bone fractures and osteoporosis. Menstruation often ceases, and brain CAT scans of anorexic patients show enlarged ventricles (cavities) and widened grooves. Such signs generally indicate loss of brain tissue. Approximately 5 percent ultimately die of the disorder.
Occasionally the anorexic succumbs to the desire to eat and gorges on food, followed by vomiting or taking laxatives. This type of binging and purging is also characteristic of bulimia.
Bulimia is much more common than anorexia nervosa. Bulimics are not just impulsive eaters; they also show impulsivity in other aeas, sometimes by petty shoplifting or alcohol abuse. Like anorexia, bulimia is very harmful and can even be life-threatening. Bulimia causes eroded tooth enamel and tooth loss, severe damage to the throat and stomach, and serious digestive disorders. Because bulimics are aware of their abnormal eating habits and are often desperate to get help, they are usually more responsive to therapy than anorexics.
6/11/08
Which is the best techniques?
Whatever pain relief technique is used – operant conditioning, biofeedback, relaxation, or some other – success greatly depends in the patient’s conviction that the pain can in fact be controlled. This brings us back to the importance of an internal locus of control. Without this feeling of control, the effectiveness of any pain control method will be substantially reduced. Over half of patients achieved at least a 33 percent reduction in pain through biofeedback and hypnosis, attributed the success of their program to four factors: distraction of attention, suggestions, relaxation, and the sense of control over the pain.
Relaxation Techniques
Chronic pain sufferers tend to talk and think about their pain whenever they’re not thoroughly engrossed in other activities because the pain always seems to be there. Moreover, when loved ones react to the pain behavior by giving extra attention and care, they seem ti reinforce not only the behavior but also the patient’s perception at the pain. Thus, instead of doting over a chronic pain patient, loved ones might be better spend their time trying to divert the person’s attention. Watching TV shows or films, attending parties, or exercising might all help reduce discomfort. Attention might also be diverted with relaxation techniques, which have the added advantage of easing the tension and anxiety components of pain.
Relaxation techniques are used in conjunction with brathing techniques as a way of reducing the anxiety and pain of childbirth. Relaxations works by focusing attention on the relaxation process rather than on the uncertainty and fear of the birthing process. It also help relieve the muscle tension that aggravates the pain during childbirth. These same techniques can be used to try to relieve other kinds of pain. Remember, though that these techniques do not eliminate the pain, they merely allow the persons to ignore it for a time.
Relaxation techniques are used in conjunction with brathing techniques as a way of reducing the anxiety and pain of childbirth. Relaxations works by focusing attention on the relaxation process rather than on the uncertainty and fear of the birthing process. It also help relieve the muscle tension that aggravates the pain during childbirth. These same techniques can be used to try to relieve other kinds of pain. Remember, though that these techniques do not eliminate the pain, they merely allow the persons to ignore it for a time.
Biofeedback
Most biofeedback with chronic pain patients is done with the electromyograph (EMG). This device measures muscle tension by recording electrical activity in the skin. The EMG is most helpful when the pain has an exaggerated muscle tension component, such as tension headache and lower back pain. Electrodes are attached to the site of the pain, and the patient is instructed to relax. When sufficient relaxation is achieved, the machine signals with a tone or a light. The signal serves as feedback to the patient. Biofeedback is successful because itu teaches patients to recognize patterns of emotional arousal and conflict that affect their psyhological responses. They can then learn self-regulations skills to help them control their pain.
A major benefit of biofeedback is that it helps people feel they have some control over the pain. Patients with lower back pain who received EMG biofeedback showed a significant decrease in their tension levels and in subjective reports of pain, as compared to patients who did not receive biofeedback. Whati is remarkable about this study is that when the same patients were studied three months later, their tensions levels had returned to pretreatment levels, but they still reported lowered levels of pain. These results suggest that the EMG training was successful in teaching the patients that they need not accept the pain as uncontrollable. They could assume an internal locus of control over their pain and therefore cope more effectively with it.
A major benefit of biofeedback is that it helps people feel they have some control over the pain. Patients with lower back pain who received EMG biofeedback showed a significant decrease in their tension levels and in subjective reports of pain, as compared to patients who did not receive biofeedback. Whati is remarkable about this study is that when the same patients were studied three months later, their tensions levels had returned to pretreatment levels, but they still reported lowered levels of pain. These results suggest that the EMG training was successful in teaching the patients that they need not accept the pain as uncontrollable. They could assume an internal locus of control over their pain and therefore cope more effectively with it.
Operant Conditioning Techniques
Working with chronic pain patients is no easy matter, because countless factors may unintentionallu reinforce the pain. For example, talking about pain focuses attention on it. Anxiety also tends to increase the pserception of pain, which further increases the anxiety, which further increases the pain. Often, a patient learns inappropriate behaviors, such as inactivity, that then come to be associated with the pain. Contrary, to popular belief, an increase in activity and exercise can be beneficial. Exercise releases endorphind, the chemicals that attach themselves to nerve cells in the brain and block the perception of pain. Pain patients, however, tend to decrease their sctivity levels and stop exercising altogether. Wll-meaning friends and relatives reinforce this inactivity by doing things for the patients when they complain. In this way, patients can become operantly conditioned to inactivity and other disadvantageous behaviors, such as complaining about their pain, by being reinforced for them. In such cases, psychologists may initiate a behavior modification program not only for the patiens but also for their families and friends.
Cains and Pasino (1977) conducted the first controlled study on the effectiveness of operant conditioning techniques in the treatment of chronic pain. They provided reinforcement by congratulating pain patients when they followed through with their pain treatment programs (daily exercise, use of relaxation techniques, and so on) snf by charting their adherence to the program. The researchers found that both techniques were effective in reducing the subjective pain experienced by their patients. Thus, amny pain control programs now incorporate an operant conditioning component, in which patients are reinforced for carrying through with changes that result in “well behaviors”.
Cains and Pasino (1977) conducted the first controlled study on the effectiveness of operant conditioning techniques in the treatment of chronic pain. They provided reinforcement by congratulating pain patients when they followed through with their pain treatment programs (daily exercise, use of relaxation techniques, and so on) snf by charting their adherence to the program. The researchers found that both techniques were effective in reducing the subjective pain experienced by their patients. Thus, amny pain control programs now incorporate an operant conditioning component, in which patients are reinforced for carrying through with changes that result in “well behaviors”.
Is chronic pain very common?
It has been estimated that as many as one-third of all Americans suffer from continuous or recurrent pain, and tens of millions are partiallu or completely disabled by their pain. Although psychological factors rarely are the source of chronic pain, they can encourage and intensify the pain, contribute to maintaining it, and increase the anguish and disability of chronic pain condition. In recent years, doctors have begun teaming up with or referring patients to health psychologists who can help them deal more effectively with pain. The psychologist may recommend increased activity and exercise or changes in diet, since chemicals such as monosodium glutamate and caffeine contribute to pain, particularly headache. The psychologists may also use specific treatment methods, such as operant conditioning, biofeedback, and relaxation.
Chronic pain
Pain is the most common reason why people seek medical attention. It is the major symptom reported in over 80 percent of all visits to physicians. Although we try to avoid pain, it is necessary for our survival. Pain alerts us to dangerous or harmful situations, and pain forces us to rest and recover from injury. But chronic pain, pain that continues long past the healing of a wound, or pain that is associated with a chronic disease does not serve a useful function. If you’ve ever had your back “go out” or a headache that lasted for days, you have an idea of the suffering people experience with chronic pain from arthritis, cancer, migraine or tension headache, and neuralgia, for example. They experience the same kind of pain you feel from your bad back of your headache, except that their pain doesn’t go pressed, and dependent on others, with a consequent loss of self-esteem. Their social lives and personal relationships are profoundly affected, their sporting and other activities are considerably curtailed, and some forced to quit their jobs. Doctors may prescribe pain medications to which the patient can become addicted. In some cases, surgey may be an option, but it isn’t always successful.
Where does the wellnes part of health psychology come in?
Health psychologists also educate the general public about health maintenance. They provide information about the effects of stress, smoking, lack of exercise, and other health issues. They develop and administer programs to help people learn how to cope with chronic problems, such as pain and high blood pressure, as wll as unhealthful behaviors, such as lack of assertiveness and aggression.
What health psychologists do
Health psychologists work as researchers and practitioners, dealing with such problems as high cholesterol, hypertension, chronic pain, diabetes, cancer, and AIDS. As researchers, health psychologists work in a wide variety of areas.
Health psychologists work as researchers and practitioners work in the medical field, in such settings as hospitals and clinics. Astounding technological advances have been made in meicine in the last few years, including heart transplants and bypass surgery. According to Jack Copeland, a cardiothoracic surgeon, patients almost uniformly have accompanying psychological problems – extreme guilt in the case of transplant patients, plus worry over changes in appearance, adjustment to dietary restrictions, change in activity level, and so on.
Health psychologist therefore often work hand-in-hand with physicians, nurses, anesthesiologists, and other staff. They help patients and their families make critical decisions. They help patients before and after surgery or other treatment by letting them know what to expect. For example, before recommending bypass surgery, cardiologists often order several tests that can be frightening and painful. By discussing the purpose of the tests and suggesting ways to cope with them, psychologists can help patients manage the accompanying stress.
Health psychologists work as researchers and practitioners work in the medical field, in such settings as hospitals and clinics. Astounding technological advances have been made in meicine in the last few years, including heart transplants and bypass surgery. According to Jack Copeland, a cardiothoracic surgeon, patients almost uniformly have accompanying psychological problems – extreme guilt in the case of transplant patients, plus worry over changes in appearance, adjustment to dietary restrictions, change in activity level, and so on.
Health psychologist therefore often work hand-in-hand with physicians, nurses, anesthesiologists, and other staff. They help patients and their families make critical decisions. They help patients before and after surgery or other treatment by letting them know what to expect. For example, before recommending bypass surgery, cardiologists often order several tests that can be frightening and painful. By discussing the purpose of the tests and suggesting ways to cope with them, psychologists can help patients manage the accompanying stress.
The nature of health psychology
Health psychology is the study of the relationship between psychological behavior and physical health and illness, with an emphasis on “wellness” and the prevention of illness. Health psychologists study how people’s lifestyles and activities, emotional reactions, ways of interpreting events, and personality characteristics influence their physical health. Some health psychologists are involved primarily in research, whereas others work directly with physicians and other health professionals to implement research findings.
The field of health psychology is relatively new, but it has grown exponentially in the last decade in terms of both research and practice. Throughout most of history, the relationship between mind and physical health had been a widely accepted fact. However, the discovery of physiological causes for infections diseases such as typhoid and syphilis in the late 1800s led doctors to search for only physiological causes of disease. This in turn led to such marked advances in medicine and public health during the last century that our life expectancy has increased more than 50 percent from 46.3 to 3.2 years for men and from 48.3 to 79.7 years for women. Concurrently, the major causes of death have shifted from pneumonia, influenza, tuberculosis, and gastrointestinal infection to cancer, heart and cardiovascular disease, accidents, and chronic lung diseases. Thus, causes of death have shifted from disease as a result of infection to disease brought on bu behavior and lifestyle. Once again we recognize that physical and mental health are related.
The field of health psychology is relatively new, but it has grown exponentially in the last decade in terms of both research and practice. Throughout most of history, the relationship between mind and physical health had been a widely accepted fact. However, the discovery of physiological causes for infections diseases such as typhoid and syphilis in the late 1800s led doctors to search for only physiological causes of disease. This in turn led to such marked advances in medicine and public health during the last century that our life expectancy has increased more than 50 percent from 46.3 to 3.2 years for men and from 48.3 to 79.7 years for women. Concurrently, the major causes of death have shifted from pneumonia, influenza, tuberculosis, and gastrointestinal infection to cancer, heart and cardiovascular disease, accidents, and chronic lung diseases. Thus, causes of death have shifted from disease as a result of infection to disease brought on bu behavior and lifestyle. Once again we recognize that physical and mental health are related.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)
